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Anushilan Academy

Rise and Expansion of British Power in India

·2139 words·11 mins

After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the English East India Company (EIC) transitioned from a trading body to a political power. Through a combination of military victories, diplomacy, alliance-making, and annexation policies, the Company established hegemony over large parts of the Indian subcontinent.

I. The Conquest of Bengal
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Bengal was the richest province in India. Its conquest provided the EIC with the revenue base needed to fund further expansions.

Event Year Parties Result / Importance
Fortification dispute 1756 Siraj-ud-Daulah vs British Siraj objected to unauthorized British fortification of Calcutta and misuse of trade privileges.
Black Hole Tragedy 1756 Siraj-ud-Daulah vs British Alleged incident used by the British as a pretext for war.
Treaty of Alinagar Feb 1757 Siraj-ud-Daulah & Robert Clive Restored British privileges; acted as a prelude to Plassey.
Battle of Plassey 23 June 1757 Robert Clive vs Siraj-ud-Daulah Mir Jafar defected; British victory laid the foundation of British rule.
Mir Qasim’s reforms 1760-1763 Mir Qasim vs Company officials Shifted capital to Munger, reorganized army, and abolished internal duties to challenge Company misuse of dastaks.
Battle of Buxar 22 Oct 1764 Hector Munro vs Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah, Shah Alam II Decisive British victory; established the EIC as a de facto ruler in North India.
Treaty of Allahabad 1765 Robert Clive, Shah Alam II, Shuja-ud-Daulah EIC secured Diwani Rights for Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
Dual System 1765-1772 Robert Clive Company held the Diwani (revenue), while the Nawab held the Nizamat (administration). Abolished by Warren Hastings.

Aftermath of Bengal Conquest
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  • Plassey was a political victory, won more by conspiracy and betrayal than by battlefield superiority.
  • Buxar was a military victory, and is considered more decisive because the British defeated three major powers together.
  • Bengal’s revenue financed Company wars in Mysore, Maratha territory, and other regions.
  • The Dual System caused administrative breakdown because power and responsibility were separated.
  • The Bengal Famine of 1770 exposed the exploitative nature of Company revenue policies.

II. Carnatic Wars: End of French Challenge
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The Carnatic Wars were fought in South India as part of the wider Anglo-French rivalry. They prepared the ground for British political expansion.

War Period Key Treaty / Event Importance
First Carnatic War 1746-1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) Madras was restored to the British; showed European wars could affect India.
Second Carnatic War 1749-1754 Treaty of Pondicherry (1754) Dupleix’s Indian ambitions failed; British influence rose through Muhammad Ali.
Third Carnatic War 1756-1763 Battle of Wandiwash (1760), Treaty of Paris (1763) French political influence in India ended; they retained only trading settlements.

III. Expansion in the South: Anglo-Mysore Wars
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Mysore, under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan, was a formidable obstacle to British expansion in Southern India.

War Period Treaty Outcome
First Anglo-Mysore War 1767-1769 Treaty of Madras (1769) Haider Ali defeated the British; treaty promised mutual restoration of conquests and defensive aid.
Battle of Porto Novo 1781 Eyre Coote vs Haider Ali British victory during the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
Second Anglo-Mysore War 1780-1784 Treaty of Mangalore (1784) Haider Ali died (1782); Tipu continued the war; treaty restored conquered territories.
Third Anglo-Mysore War 1790-1792 Treaty of Seringapatam (1792) Tipu lost half his territory and paid heavy indemnity; two sons were taken as hostages.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 1799 No Treaty Tipu Sultan died defending Seringapatam; Mysore came under Subsidiary Alliance.

Why Mysore Was Important
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  • Haider Ali modernized the Mysore army and used French military support.
  • Tipu Sultan was called the “Tiger of Mysore” and promoted state-controlled trade, coinage reforms, and military modernization.
  • Tipu sent diplomatic missions to France, Turkey, and Afghanistan to seek help against the British.
  • After 1799, the Wodeyar dynasty was restored under British control, while parts of Mysore were shared among the British, Nizam, and Marathas.

IV. Subjugation of the Marathas
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The Maratha Confederacy was the most powerful Indian power after the Mughals, but internal divisions led to its downfall.

War / Event Period Key Treaty Result
First Anglo-Maratha War 1775-1782 Treaty of Salbai (1782) Established about 20 years of peace between the EIC and Marathas.
Treaty of Surat 1775 Raghunath Rao & British British supported Raghunath Rao’s claim to Peshwaship; immediate cause of First Anglo-Maratha War.
Treaty of Purandar 1776 British & Marathas British abandoned Raghunath Rao, but the Bombay government later refused to fully accept it.
Convention of Wadgaon 1779 British & Marathas British were forced to surrender after defeat near Pune; later rejected by Warren Hastings.
Treaty of Bassein 1802 Peshwa Baji Rao II & British Peshwa accepted Subsidiary Alliance; major blow to Maratha independence.
Second Anglo-Maratha War 1803-1805 Bassein (1802), Deogaon (1803), Surji-Anjangaon (1803) Maratha power weakened; British influence expanded in central and northern India.
Treaty of Deogaon 1803 British & Bhonsle Bhonsle ceded Cuttack and accepted British influence.
Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon 1803 British & Scindia Scindia ceded territory and lost influence over the Mughal emperor.
Pindari War 1817-1818 Lord Hastings Suppression of Pindaris was linked to the final defeat of the Marathas.
Third Anglo-Maratha War 1817-1818 Treaty of Mandasaur (1818) Peshwaship was abolished; Maratha confederacy was destroyed.

Causes of Maratha Decline
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  • Lack of unity among the Peshwa, Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle, and Gaekwad.
  • Defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) weakened Maratha prestige.
  • Treaty of Bassein is often treated as a turning point because it placed the Peshwa under British protection.
  • After 1818, Baji Rao II was pensioned off to Bithur, and the small kingdom of Satara was created for Pratap Singh.

V. Conquest of the North-West: Punjab & Sindh
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War / Event Period Key Person / Treaty Result
Treaty of Amritsar 1809 Ranjit Singh & Charles Metcalfe Fixed the Sutlej as boundary of Sikh expansion; British accepted Ranjit Singh’s control west of the Sutlej.
Conquest of Sindh 1843 Charles Napier Sindh was annexed; Napier is associated with the pun “Peccavi” (“I have sinned/Sindh”).
First Anglo-Sikh War 1845-1846 Treaty of Lahore (1846) Sikhs lost territory; British Resident stationed at Lahore.
Treaty of Bhairowal 1846 British & Lahore Darbar British control over Lahore administration increased through a Council of Regency.
Second Anglo-Sikh War 1848-1849 Lord Dalhousie Punjab was annexed; Dalhousie integrated it into the British Empire.

Important Sikh Facts
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  • Ranjit Singh founded a strong Sikh state with Lahore as capital and maintained a disciplined army with European officers.
  • After Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, succession struggles weakened the Sikh kingdom.
  • Battle of Chillianwala (1849) was one of the hardest-fought battles of the Second Anglo-Sikh War.
  • The Koh-i-Noor was taken by the British after the annexation of Punjab.

VI. Expansion on Eastern and Frontier Regions
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Region / War Period Treaty / Result Importance
First Anglo-Nepal War 1814-1816 Treaty of Sugauli (1816) British gained Kumaon, Garhwal, and parts of Terai; Gorkhas later recruited into British army.
First Anglo-Burmese War 1824-1826 Treaty of Yandabo (1826) British gained Assam, Arakan, and Tenasserim; Burma recognized Manipur’s independence.
First Anglo-Afghan War 1839-1842 British defeat and retreat from Kabul Part of the “Great Game”; showed limits of forward policy.
Second Anglo-Burmese War 1852 Annexation of Lower Burma/Pegu Expanded British control over trade routes and the eastern frontier.

VII. Tools of Expansion: Diplomatic Policies
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The British used military pressure, treaties, and administrative doctrines to annex or control Indian states.

1. Subsidiary Alliance (Lord Wellesley, 1798)
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The Indian ruler had to maintain a British force in their territory and pay for it. They also had to station a British Resident at their court.

  • The ruler could not employ Europeans or enter alliances/war without British permission.
  • If the ruler could not pay for the subsidiary force, territory was ceded to the Company.
  • It weakened Indian states financially and militarily while preserving nominal sovereignty.
  • Order of Acceptance:
    1. Hyderabad (1798) - First to accept.
    2. Mysore (1799)
    3. Tanjore (1799)
    4. Awadh (1801)
    5. Peshwa (1802)
    6. Bhonsle (1803)
    7. Scindia (1804)

2. Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie, 1848)
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If an Indian ruler of a dependent state died without a natural heir, the state was annexed by the British. Adopted sons were not recognized as heirs to the throne.

  • Annexations under Doctrine of Lapse:
    1. Satara (1848) - First to be annexed.
    2. Jaitpur & Sambalpur (1849)
    3. Baghat (1850)
    4. Udaipur (1852)
    5. Jhansi (1853)
    6. Nagpur (1854)

Note: Awadh (1856) was annexed on grounds of “Maladministration”, not the Doctrine of Lapse.

3. Other Expansionist Methods
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  • Ring Fence Policy: Associated with Warren Hastings; aimed to defend Company territories by surrounding them with buffer states.
  • Forward Policy: Aggressive frontier policy used especially in the north-west to check Russian/Afghan influence.
  • Policy of Subordinate Isolation: Indian states accepted British protection but were isolated from each other.
  • Policy of Subordinate Union: After 1857, princely states were treated as subordinate allies of the Crown rather than targets for annexation.

VIII. Governor-Generals and Expansion
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Governor-General Period Expansion-Related Facts
Robert Clive 1757-1760, 1765-1767 Plassey, Diwani rights, Dual System in Bengal.
Warren Hastings 1772-1785 Ended Dual System; First Anglo-Maratha War; Second Anglo-Mysore War.
Cornwallis 1786-1793 Third Anglo-Mysore War; Permanent Settlement in Bengal.
Wellesley 1798-1805 Subsidiary Alliance; Fourth Mysore War; Second Maratha War.
Lord Hastings 1813-1823 Anglo-Nepal War; Pindari War; Third Maratha War.
Auckland 1836-1842 First Anglo-Afghan War.
Ellenborough 1842-1844 Annexation of Sindh.
Dalhousie 1848-1856 Doctrine of Lapse; annexation of Punjab, Lower Burma, and Awadh.

IX. Treaties at a Glance
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Treaty / Agreement Year Connected Event Exam Importance
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748 First Carnatic War Madras restored to British.
Treaty of Pondicherry 1754 Second Carnatic War Dupleix recalled; French political ambition weakened.
Treaty of Alinagar 1757 Before Plassey Siraj restored British privileges.
Treaty of Paris 1763 Third Carnatic War French political power in India ended.
Treaty of Allahabad 1765 After Buxar Company got Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
Treaty of Madras 1769 First Anglo-Mysore War Haider Ali forced British into a defensive alliance.
Treaty of Surat 1775 First Anglo-Maratha War British supported Raghunath Rao.
Treaty of Purandar 1776 First Anglo-Maratha War British agreed to abandon Raghunath Rao.
Convention of Wadgaon 1779 First Anglo-Maratha War British suffered humiliation near Pune.
Treaty of Salbai 1782 First Anglo-Maratha War Brought about 20 years of peace.
Treaty of Mangalore 1784 Second Anglo-Mysore War One of the last Indian treaties signed on relatively equal terms with the British.
Treaty of Seringapatam 1792 Third Anglo-Mysore War Tipu lost half his territory.
Treaty of Bassein 1802 Before Second Anglo-Maratha War Peshwa accepted Subsidiary Alliance.
Treaty of Deogaon 1803 Second Anglo-Maratha War Bhonsle ceded Cuttack.
Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon 1803 Second Anglo-Maratha War Scindia ceded territory and lost influence at Delhi.
Treaty of Amritsar 1809 Ranjit Singh and British Sutlej boundary fixed.
Treaty of Sugauli 1816 Anglo-Nepal War British gained Kumaon, Garhwal, and parts of Terai.
Treaty of Mandasaur 1818 Third Anglo-Maratha War Holkar accepted British supremacy.
Treaty of Yandabo 1826 First Anglo-Burmese War British gained Assam, Arakan, and Tenasserim.
Treaty of Lahore 1846 First Anglo-Sikh War British Resident stationed at Lahore.
Treaty of Bhairowal 1846 After First Anglo-Sikh War British control over Lahore administration increased.

X. High-Yield One-Liners
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  • Battle of Buxar was more decisive than Plassey because it confirmed British military superiority over major Indian powers.
  • Robert Clive is known as the “Conqueror of Bengal.”
  • The Treaty of Salbai (1782) gave the British a long respite from the Marathas.
  • Lord Hastings (1813-1823) oversaw major territorial expansion before Dalhousie.
  • Lord Wellesley called himself the “Bengal Tiger.”
  • Lord Dalhousie is known as the “Great Annexer.”
  • The Battle of Wandiwash (1760) ended French political influence in India.
  • The Regulating Act of 1773 was the first step towards Parliamentary control over the EIC.
  • Ranjit Singh signed the Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with the British.
  • Ahilyabai Holkar was a prominent Maratha queen of Malwa, remembered for efficient administration and temple patronage.
  • Treaty of Bassein (1802) is called a “death warrant” of Maratha independence by many historians.
  • Awadh was first forced to cede territory in 1801 under Subsidiary Alliance and was later annexed in 1856.
  • Jhansi and Nagpur became major grievance points before the Revolt of 1857 due to the Doctrine of Lapse.

XI. Timeline of British Expansion
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Year Event
1746-1763 Carnatic Wars; British defeat French political ambitions in India.
1757 Battle of Plassey; conquest of Bengal starts.
1764 Battle of Buxar; British supremacy in the North.
1765 Grant of Diwani Rights.
1772 Warren Hastings abolished the Dual System in Bengal.
1782 Treaty of Salbai ended First Anglo-Maratha War.
1799 Fall of Seringapatam; death of Tipu Sultan.
1802 Treaty of Bassein; Peshwa entered Subsidiary Alliance.
1809 Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh.
1816 Treaty of Sugauli after Anglo-Nepal War.
1818 End of Maratha power after Third Anglo-Maratha War.
1826 Treaty of Yandabo ended First Anglo-Burmese War.
1843 Annexation of Sindh.
1846 Treaty of Lahore after First Anglo-Sikh War.
1848 Introduction of Doctrine of Lapse.
1849 Annexation of Punjab.
1852 Annexation of Lower Burma/Pegu.
1856 Annexation of Awadh on grounds of misgovernance.
1857 The Great Revolt; end of EIC expansion phase.

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