History and Development of Anthropology in India

Anthropology in India is not merely an imported Western discipline; it has developed a distinct identity shaped by colonial governance, nationalist movements, unique tribal-caste dynamics, and landmark empirical research. For WBCS Anthropology Paper 2, Section 1 is a high-yield area frequently tested through direct conceptual and biographical/evaluative questions.

This study note provides complete coverage of Unit 1 of WBCS Anthropology Paper 2:

• 1.1 Colonialism and Anthropology in India.
• 1.2 Phases of development and major trends of Anthropology in India.
• 1.3 Idea of Indian tradition of Anthropology and Contributions of Indian Scholars: S.C. Roy, N.K. Bose, M.N. Srinivas, D.N. Majumdar, T.C. Das, S.C. Sinha, and S.S. Sarkar.

1.1 Colonialism and Anthropology in India

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1. The Colonial Context & Administrative Utility

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Anthropology in India emerged during the late 18th and 19th centuries under British colonial rule. The British empire required detailed knowledge of the social organization, customs, customary laws, religions, and tribal structures of the native populations to establish political control, collect revenue efficiently, and maintain law and order.

• “Knowledge as Power” (Bernard Cohn’s perspective): Colonial administrators realized that ruling a vast and diverse country like India demanded systematic categorization of its people into tribes, castes, and religious groups.
• Administrator-Anthropologists: The earliest anthropological accounts were produced by British administrators, military officers, and missionaries rather than academic scholars. Key figures include:
  • Francis Buchanan: Conducted extensive ethnographic survey work in Bengal, Bihar, and South India.
  • H.H. Risley: Compiled monumental works like The Tribes and Castes of Bengal (1891) and The People of India (1908). He introduced physical anthropometry into colonial censuses.
  • J.H. Hutton, E. Thurston, R.V. Russell, and L.S.S. O’Malley: Produced descriptive encyclopedias on castes and tribes across various Indian provinces.

2. Dual Nature of Colonial Anthropology

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Colonial anthropology in India operated under a twin-edged nexus:

1. Practical / Administrative Necessity:
   • Customary Law & Governance: Helped draft colonial laws (e.g., land settlement acts, tribal land alienation legislation).
   • Tribal Management: Following tribal rebellions (e.g., Santhal Hul of 1855, Birsa Munda movement of 1899–1900), colonial administrators used ethnographic data to isolate tribal areas under “Excluded” and “Partially Excluded Areas” (Government of India Act 1935).
2. Ideological & Racial Bias:
   • Anthropometric Hierarchy: Colonial anthropologists like H.H. Risley applied racial classifications (e.g., Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Mongoloid) and attempted to correlate caste hierarchies with nasal index (“Risley’s Nasal Index Hypothesis”).
   • Divide and Rule Ideology: Colonial ethnography often portrayed castes and tribes as isolated, static, and inherently antagonistic units, reinforcing British imperial control.

3. Transition from Colonial Ethnography to Academic Discipline

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• Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784): Founded by Sir William Jones, it provided the initial institutional platform for studying Indian culture, languages, and antiquities.
• Census of India (1872 onwards): Served as a massive data-gathering project that formalized tribal and caste categories.
• Institutionalization: Academic departments were established at Calcutta University (1920/1921), Bombay University (Sociology & Ethnology), and Lucknow University.

1.2 Phases of Development and Major Trends of Anthropology in India

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Anthropologists like L.P. Vidyarthi (in his book Rise of Anthropology in India) and S.C. Dube categorized the growth of Indian Anthropology into distinct historical phases. Vidyarthi’s classification into three main phases is the standard benchmark for WBCS answers.

timeline
    title Development of Anthropology in India
    1774 : Asiatic Society of Bengal
    1872 : Census-based ethnography
    1920 : Calcutta University department
    1921 : Man in India founded
    1945 : Anthropological Survey of India
    1950 : Village studies, applied anthropology

       ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
       │             PHASES OF INDIAN ANTHROPOLOGY                   │
       └──────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┘
                                      │
         ┌────────────────────────────┼────────────────────────────┐
         ▼                            ▼                            ▼
  FORMATIVE PHASE              CONSTRUCTIVE PHASE            ANALYTICAL PHASE
   (1774 – 1919)                 (1920 – 1949)             (1950 – Present)
 • Administrator-             • Academic Departments        • Post-Independence
   Ethnographers                (CU 1920/21)                  Nation Building
 • Descriptive accounts       • Professionalization         • Village Studies &
 • Census & Surveys           • Integration of              • Applied/Action
 • Focus on Tribes/Castes       Social & Biological           Anthropology

Phase 1: Formative Phase (1774 – 1919)

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• Pioneers: Colonial administrators, missionaries, travelers, and amateur British scholars (e.g., Sir William Jones, Francis Buchanan, H.H. Risley, Dalton, Thurston).
• Key Features:
  • Heavy reliance on primary descriptive data, gazetteers, and census reports.
  • Focus on documenting “exotic” customs, kinship, marriage, and physical traits of Indian tribes and castes.
  • Establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784) and launch of journals like Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
  • Publication of milestone monographs like E.T. Dalton’s Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (1872) and H.H. Risley’s The Tribes and Castes of Bengal (1891).
• Indigenous Contribution: Towards the end of this phase, S.C. Roy (“Father of Indian Ethnography”) began his pioneering field research among the tribes of Chota Nagpur.

Phase 2: Constructive Phase (1920 – 1949)

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• Key Features:
  • Academic Institutionalization: Anthropology was introduced as a formal postgraduate academic subject at the University of Calcutta in 1920/1921 (led by Sir Asutosh Mookerjee and scholars like L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer and R.P. Chanda).
  • First Indian Journal: S.C. Roy founded Man in India in 1921, the first formal anthropological journal in India.
  • Establishment of Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI): Founded in 1945 in Calcutta with B.S. Guha as its first Director.
  • Methodological Shift: Transition from armchair/administrative ethnography to rigorous intensive fieldwork based on participant observation (inspired by Malinowski and Rivers).
• Major Scholars: S.C. Roy, G.S. Ghurye, K.P. Chattopadhyay, T.C. Das, D.N. Majumdar, N.K. Bose, and B.S. Guha.
• Dominant Focus: Detailed monographs on specific tribal groups (e.g., T.C. Das on the Purum Kuki; D.N. Majumdar on the Hos of Kolhan).

Phase 3: Analytical & Modern Phase (1950 – Present)

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• Key Features:
  • Post-Independence Dynamics: Shift towards nation-building, rural development, tribal welfare, and social reform.
  • Influence of American Anthropology: Indian anthropologists interacted closely with American scholars (e.g., Robert Redfield, Morris Opler, David Mandelbaum).
  • Village Studies Movement: Shift in focus from isolated tribal studies to complex Indian villages (e.g., M.N. Srinivas’s study of Rampura; S.C. Dube’s Indian Village).
  • Conceptual Innovations: Development of indigenous theoretical concepts such as Sanskritization, Dominant Caste, Little and Great Traditions, Tribe-Caste Continuum, and Sacred Complex.
  • Action & Applied Anthropology: Anthropologists began advising the Government of India on tribal development, rehabilitation, constitutional safeguards (5th and 6th Schedules), and policy planning.

1.3 Idea of Indian Tradition of Anthropology

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Unlike Western anthropology, which largely originated as the study of “exotic, non-Western Others,” the Indian Tradition of Anthropology possesses unique characteristics:

1. Self-Study (“Anthropology at Home”): Indian anthropologists studied their own society, culture, castes, and tribes, blending objective scientific methodology with empathetic insider insight (emic-etic balance).
2. Continuity with Classical Indian Thought: Early Indian scholars drew inspiration from Indian civilizational concepts found in sacred texts (e.g., Parampara, Purushartha, Varna, Ashrama), while maintaining empirical rigor.
3. Synthetic Approach: Indian anthropology integrated Social-Cultural Anthropology, Physical/Biological Anthropology, Prehistoric Archaeology, and Linguistics under a holistic four-fold framework.
4. Humanistic & Action Orientation: Driven by national liberation and post-colonial reconstruction, Indian anthropologists (like N.K. Bose, S.C. Sinha, and Verrier Elwin) actively engaged in social activism, tribal integration, and anti-caste reform.

Contributions of Key Indian Scholars

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mindmap
  root((Indian Anthropology))
    S. C. Roy
      Ethnography
      Man in India
    N. K. Bose
      Hindu method of tribal absorption
    M. N. Srinivas
      Sanskritization
      Dominant caste
    D. N. Majumdar
      Tribe-caste continuum
    S. C. Sinha
      State formation

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                             INDIAN ANTHROPOLOGY PIONEERS                                 │
├───────────────────┬──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Scholar           │ Signature Concept / Fieldwork / Milestone Contribution               │
├───────────────────┼──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ S.C. Roy          │ Father of Indian Ethnography; founded 'Man in India' (1921)          │
│ N.K. Bose         │ Cultural Position of Hath; Hindu Mode of Tribal Absorption           │
│ M.N. Srinivas     │ Sanskritization, Dominant Caste, Fieldworker's Perspective (Rampura) │
│ D.N. Majumdar     │ Matrix of Indian Culture; ACC (Culture Change among Hos/Khasas)      │
│ T.C. Das          │ Monograph on 'The Purums'; Bengal Famine (1943) survey methodology   │
│ S.C. Sinha        │ Tribe-Caste / Tribe-Peasant Continuum; Bhumij Kshatriyaization      │
│ S.S. Sarkar       │ Racial Classification of India; ABO blood groups & twins genetics   │
└───────────────────┴──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

1. Sarat Chandra Roy (1871–1942)

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• Title: Known as the “Father of Indian Ethnography”.
• Major Fieldwork: Chota Nagpur region (Jharkhand), studying tribes such as the Oraon, Munda, Birhor, Hill Bhuiya, and Kharia.
• Key Works & Publications:
  • The Mundas and Their Country (1912)
  • The Oraons of Chota Nagpur (1915)
  • The Birhors (1925)
  • Founded India’s first anthropology journal, Man in India (1921).
• Key Contributions:
  • Lawyer turned Anthropologist: Used legal expertise to defend tribal land rights in colonial courts against oppressive zamindars.
  • Championed sympathetic, holistic, and long-term participant observation fieldwork among Indian tribes.
  • Formulated early ideas on tribal welfare, advocating for protection without isolation.

2. Nirmal Kumar Bose (1901–1972)

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• Core Identity: Anthropologist, Gandhian activist, scholar of Indian architecture, and former Director of the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI).
• Major Concepts & Contributions:
  1. Hindu Mode of Tribal Absorption (1941):
     • Demonstrated how Indian tribes were gradually integrated into the Hindu economic framework (caste system) without force.
     • Tribes adopted Hindu rituals and caste roles because the caste system guaranteed non-competitive occupational security under the traditional Jajmani network.
  2. Cultural Position of Hath (Weekly Markets):
     • Highlighted weekly markets (hath) as vital economic and socio-cultural nodes facilitating interaction between tribes and non-tribals.
  3. Culture Zone Survey of India:
     • Directed massive AnSI projects mapping material culture traits (pottery, plows, oil-presses) across India, establishing cultural unity amidst structural diversity.
  4. Structure of Hindu Society (Hindu Samajer Gathan):
     • Applied structural-functional analysis and historical materialism to understand Indian civilization and caste fluidity.

3. M.N. Srinivas (Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas) (1916–1999)

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• Core Identity: Internationally acclaimed sociologist/anthropologist trained under G.S. Ghurye (Bombay) and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown & E.E. Evans-Pritchard (Oxford).
• Fieldwork Site: Rampura village in South India (The Remembered Village).
• Major Theoretical Concepts:
  1. Sanskritization:
     • Defined as the process by which a “low” Hindu caste, tribe, or other group changes its customs, ritual, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high, frequently “twice-born” (Dwija) caste.
  2. Dominant Caste:
     • A caste that exercises decisive dominance in a region when it possesses majority numerical strength, political power, economic status (land ownership), and modern education/occupational positions.
  3. Westernization & Secularization:
     • Analyzed cultural transformation resulting from British rule, technology, education, and democratic institutions.
  4. Methodological Contribution:
     • Championed the “Fieldworker’s Perspective” over the static “Book View” (textual/scriptural view) of Indian society.

4. D.N. Majumdar (Dhirendra Nath Majumdar) (1903–1960)

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• Core Identity: Dynamic anthropologist trained under T.C. Das (Calcutta) and B. Malinowski (LSE); established the famous “Lucknow School of Anthropology.”
• Fieldwork Areas: Hos of Kolhan (Jharkhand), Khasas of Jaunsar-Bawar (Uttarakhand), and Mirzapur tribes (UP).
• Key Contributions:
  1. Integrative Approach: Combined Social-Cultural Anthropology, Physical Anthropology, and Serology/Genetics.
  2. Studies on Culture Change:
     • Documented the impact of modern contact on tribal communities in A Tribe in Transition: A Study in Culture Pattern (1937) and The Affairs of a Tribe (1950).
  3. Concept of “ACC” (Acculturation, Functional Adjustment, and Culture Shock):
     • Analyzed polyandry among the Khasas of Jaunsar-Bawar and economic adaptations among northern Indian tribes.
  4. Urban & Village Studies: Conducted pioneer social-anthropological surveys of Kanpur city and rural UP (Caste and Communication in an Indian Village).

5. T.C. Das (Tarak Chandra Das) (1898–1964)

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• Core Identity: Master methodologist and legendary professor at the Department of Anthropology, Calcutta University.
• Major Fieldwork & Landmark Publications:
  1. The Purums: An Old Kuki Tribe of Manipur (1945):
     • A classic monograph globally recognized for its meticulous fieldwork and empirical accuracy.
     • Used by leading international theorists, including Claude Lévi-Strauss in his seminal work The Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949), to illustrate asymmetric prescriptive alliance and matrilateral cross-cousin marriage.
  2. Bengal Famine (1943) (1949):
     • Pioneered applied social survey methodology during the catastrophic 1943 Bengal Famine.
     • Used quantitative and qualitative anthropological tools to measure socio-economic distress, mortality, family breakdown, and destitution, providing empirical data for post-war famine relief policies.
  3. Methodological Rigor: Standardized genealogy, census taking, and participant observation methods for generations of Indian anthropometry and ethnography students.

6. Surajit Chandra Sinha (1926–2002)

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• Core Identity: Renowned anthropologist trained at Calcutta University and the University of Chicago (under Robert Redfield); former Vice-Chancellor of Visva-Bharati University and Director of AnSI.
• Fieldwork Area: Bhumij tribe of Barabhum (West Bengal/Jharkhand).
• Major Concepts & Contributions:
  1. Tribe-Caste & Tribe-Peasant Continuum:
     • Refined Robert Redfield’s “Folk-Urban Continuum” to fit the Indian context, demonstrating that tribes and castes in India are not isolated polar opposites but exist along a continuous socio-cultural gradient.
  2. State Formation & Rajputization (Bhumij Kshatriyaization):
     • Formulated the concept of Rajputization, showing how tribal leaders and chiefs adopted Kshatriya customs, hired Brahmin priests, created royal genealogies, and established feudatory kingdoms to legitimize political dominance.
  3. Indian Civilization Framework:
     • Investigated how tribal autonomous traditions (Little Traditions) interact with civilization-wide orthodox traditions (Great Traditions).
  4. Study of Ascetics & Monastic Traditions: Researched the organization of sadhus and monastic institutions in Kashi (Varanasi).

7. S.S. Sarkar (Sasanka Sekhar Sarkar) (1908–1969)

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• Core Identity: Preeminent Indian physical/biological anthropologist trained in India and Germany (under Eugen Fischer); professor at Calcutta University.
• Major Contributions to Biological Anthropology:
  1. Racial Classification of India (1954):
     • Critiqued H.H. Risley’s classification and modified B.S. Guha’s scheme.
     • Proposed a 6-fold racial classification based on somatoscopy, anthropometry, and genetic markers:
       1. Australoid (Veddid)
       2. Indo-Aryan
       3. Indo-Alpine
       4. Mongoloid
       5. Dravidian
       6. Negrito (specifically examining traces in Andamanese and South Indian tribes).
  2. Serology & ABO Blood Group Distribution: Conducted extensive pioneer studies on dermatoglyphics, blood group variations, and population genetics among Indian tribes (e.g., Maler, Pahira).
  3. Twin Studies & Human Genetics: Conducted pioneering research on twinning, reproductive physiology, and micro-evolutionary changes in Indian populations.

Model Questions for WBCS Mains Practice

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10-Mark Short Notes

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1. Colonialism and the growth of ethnography in India.
2. Contributions of S.C. Roy to Indian Anthropology.
3. Tarak Chandra Das’s monograph on ‘The Purums’ and its global theoretical impact.
4. N.K. Bose’s concept of ‘Hindu Mode of Tribal Absorption’.
5. S.S. Sarkar’s racial classification of Indian populations.

20-Mark Long Questions

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1. Critically analyze the phases of development of Anthropology in India as proposed by L.P. Vidyarthi. How did the discipline shift from administrative ethnography to nation-building after 1947?
2. Discuss the concepts of ‘Sanskritization’ and ‘Dominant Caste’ formulated by M.N. Srinivas. Illustrate their significance in understanding socio-cultural dynamics in rural India.
3. Examine Surajit Sinha’s concept of Tribe-Caste / Tribe-Peasant Continuum. How does Rajputization explain state formation among Indian tribes?