The study of the Tribal Situation in India constitutes the most extensive, critical, and scoring section of WBCS Anthropology Paper 2 (Unit 8). Indian tribes (numbering over 705 distinct scheduled groups and comprising 8.6% of the national population as per Census 2011) present a complex socio-historical tapestry ranging from hunter-gatherers and shifting cultivators to industrialized wage-earners and self-governing autonomous polities.
This study note provides complete, detailed coverage across all 6 sub-units:
- 8.1 Ethnic strains in Indian population; Geographical, Economic, and Linguistic distribution of Indian tribes.
- 8.2 Major problems of Indian tribes with special reference to issues of land and forest.
- 8.3 Plans and programmes for the development of the STs; Problems/critique of tribal development; Five Year Plans and Indian tribes – A review.
- 8.4 Constitutional safeguards for STs; 5th and 6th Schedules; Statutory frameworks (PESA, FRA).
- 8.5 Socio-economic changes in tribal milieu – Impact of urbanization, industrialization, forest policy, and development projects; Colonial and post-independent shifts; Modern democratic institutions vs. traditional political systems.
- 8.6 Tribal movements (Nature and distribution); Emergence of ethnicity and identity; Tribe and Nation-State; Indian National Movement and Indian tribes; Regionalism; Jharkhand Movement; Santal Movement.
8.1 Distribution and Classifications of Indian Tribes #
Indian tribal populations exhibit immense diversity in physical racial strains, geographical terrain, subsistence typologies, and linguistic affiliations.
Four-Fold Classification Matrix #
| Classification Dimension | Primary Categories | Key Examples & Diagnostic Criteria |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Ethnic / Racial Strains | • Proto-Australoid • Mongoloid • Negrito |
• Santhal, Munda, Gond, Oraon (Central/South India) • Naga, Khasi, Bodo, Lepcha (Himalayan/North-East) • Onge, Sentinelese, Jarawa, Kadar (Andamans & South) |
| 2. Geographical Zones | • North & North-Eastern • Central / Middle Zone • Southern Zone • Island Zone |
• Naga, Mizo, Garo, Bodo, Lepcha (6th Schedule areas) • Santhal, Bhil, Gond, Munda, Ho (5th Schedule, 80%+ ST pop) • Toda, Kota, Badaga, Irula, Kadar (Nilgiris & Ghats) • Great Andamanese, Onge, Sentinelese, Nicobarese |
| 3. Linguistic Families | • Austro-Asiatic (Munda) • Tibeto-Burman • Dravidian • Indo-Aryan |
• Santali, Mundari, Ho, Kharia, Korku • Bodo, Manipuri, Garo, Tripuri, Lepcha • Gondi, Kurukh (Oraon), Malto, Kui • Bhili, Halbi (Central/Western tribes) |
| 4. Economic Subsistence | • Food Gatherers & Hunters • Shifting Cultivators (Jhum) • Settled Agriculturists • Pastoralists & Herders • Traditional Artisans • Industrial Wage Laborers |
• Birhor, Chenchu, Kadar, Onge, Sentinelese • Baiga, Juang, Kamar, Khasis, Rabhas • Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Bhil, Gond • Toda of Nilgiris, Gujjars & Bakarwals • Mahli (basket-makers), Agaria (iron-smelters) • Santhals & Hos in Tata/Bhilai mines & tea plantations |
Geographical Distribution of Indian Tribes #
Anthropologist B.S. Guha and later the Ministry of Tribal Affairs demarcated the tribal population into four primary geographical zones:
- North and North-Eastern Zone:
- Regions: Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Northern West Bengal.
- Tribes: Naga, Mizo, Khasis, Garos, Bodos, Lepchas, Rabhas, Apatanis.
- Features: High literacy, Christian missionary influence, practice of shifting cultivation (Jhum), political autonomy under the 6th Schedule.
- Central / Middle Zone (The Tribal Heartland):
- Regions: Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and South-Western West Bengal (Purulia, Bankura, Paschim Medinipur).
- Tribes: Santhal, Gond (largest tribal group in India), Bhil, Munda, Oraon, Ho, Baiga, Birhor, Juang.
- Features: Houses over 80% of India’s total tribal population; rich mineral-forest belt; faces acute industrial exploitation, land alienation, and displacement; administered under the 5th Schedule.
- Southern Zone:
- Regions: Hilly junctions of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh (Nilgiris, Western/Eastern Ghats).
- Tribes: Toda, Kota, Badaga, Irula, Kadar, Chenchu, Kurumba, Yanadi.
- Features: Small, scattered, demographic vulnerability; high presence of PVTGs; classical ethnographic groups (e.g., Toda polyandry and buffalo cult studied by W.H.R. Rivers).
- Island Zone:
- Regions: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep.
- Tribes: Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese, Shompen (PVTGs in Andamans); Nicobarese.
- Features: Complete geographical isolation; hunter-gatherers; facing extinction threats.
8.2 Major Problems of Indian Tribes (Land and Forest Issues) #
Core Problems Matrix #
| Problem Area | Underlying Causes | Socio-Anthropological Impact |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Land Alienation | • Unwritten mortgages (Bandhak) by Mahajans • Non-tribal immigration & illegal tenancy • Eminent domain state acquisitions |
Loss of subsistence livelihood; reduction to daily wage/bonded labor; severance from ancestral sacred burial grounds (Sasandiri). |
| 2. Forest Deprivation | • British Forest Acts (1865, 1878, 1927) • Commercial timber logging & reservation • Exclusionary fortress conservation |
Criminalization of traditional tribal gatherers; denial of Minor Forest Produce (MFP) access; food insecurity and poverty. |
| 3. Development Displacement | • Dams (Narmada, Hirakud), coal & iron mines • Industrial corridors in Jharkhand/Odisha |
Over 40% of total displaced persons in India are tribals; inadequate cultural resettlement; de-tribalization into urban slums. |
| 4. Chronic Indebtedness | • Lack of formal institutional credit • High interest rates (50% to 100%+) by Dikus |
Generational bonded labor systems (Gothi in AP/Odisha, Kamiauti in Bihar/Jharkhand, Sagri in Rajasthan). |
| 5. Health & Nutrition | • Geographical isolation from public PHCs • High genetic disease load & undernutrition |
High burden of Sickle-cell anemia, G6PD deficiency, endemic malaria, chronic stunting, and high IMR/MMR among PVTGs. |
1. The Land Issue: Tribal Land Alienation #
- Causes of Land Alienation:
- Fraudulent Practices by Moneylenders (Mahajans/Dikus): Oral unwritten mortgages (Bandhak), illegal tenancy contracts, and manipulating land records (Pattas).
- Encroachment by Non-Tribals: Migration of non-tribal agrarian populations into tribal belts following road and railway construction.
- Eminent Domain & State Acquisition: British Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (and subsequent amendments) used to seize tribal lands for public purpose (dams, mines, industrial corridors).
- Anthropological Consequence: Disconnection from ancestral land leads to the collapse of tribal social organization, loss of lineage sacred burial grounds (Sasandiri among Mundas), and forced distress migration to urban brick-kilns and construction sites.
2. The Forest Issue: From Symbiosis to Criminalization #
- Traditional Tribal-Forest Symbiosis: Forests provided food (tubers, fruits), housing material (bamboo, thatch), fodder for cattle, medicinal herbs, and sacred spiritual groves (Sarna).
- Colonial Forest Acts (1865, 1878, 1927): Declared forests as state property for imperial railway timber and revenue generation. Classified forests into “Reserved” and “Protected,” transforming tribal forest-dwellers into “illegal encroachers.”
- Post-Independence Forest Policies (1952 & 1988): Continued state commercial exploitation and fortress conservation (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries) leading to forced evictions.
- The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006: A historic corrective legislation recognizing:
- Individual Forest Rights (IFR) over cultivated land up to 4 hectares.
- Community Forest Rights (CFR) over Minor Forest Produce (MFP), grazing, water bodies, and community forest management via the Gram Sabha.
8.3 Tribal Development in India: Plans, Programmes, and Critique #
1. Evolution of Tribal Development Philosophies #
| Policy Approach | Key Propounder | Core Tenet & Philosophy | Critical Anthropological Evaluation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Policy of Isolation | J.H. Hutton, Verrier Elwin (Early) | Keep tribal areas isolated as “National Parks” or “Excluded Areas” to preserve pristine culture from outside decay. | Criticized for romanticizing poverty and treating tribes as static museum specimens (Zoo Approach). |
| 2. Policy of Assimilation | G.S. Ghurye, A.V. Thakkar Bapa | Treat tribes as “Backward Hindus” and assimilate them into the mainstream caste/agrarian society. | Caused loss of distinct tribal culture, language death, and exploitation by upper castes at the bottom of the hierarchy. |
| 3. Policy of Integration | Jawaharlal Nehru, Verrier Elwin (Later) | Middle Path (Tribal Panchsheel): Foster socio-economic development without imposing outside culture, preserving tribal genius. | The official policy of modern India, though hampered by bureaucratic top-down implementation. |
Nehru’s Tribal Panchsheel (1958) #
Formulated by Jawaharlal Nehru in his forward to Verrier Elwin’s book A Philosophy for NEFA, the Tribal Panchsheel serves as the moral charter of Indian tribal administration:
- People should develop along the lines of their own genius, and we should avoid imposing anything upon them.
- Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected.
- We should try to train and build up a team of their own people to do the work of administration and development.
- We should not over-administer these areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes; we should work through their own social and cultural institutions.
- We should judge results not by statistics or the amount of money spent, but by the quality of human character that is evolved.
2. Review of Tribal Development Across Five Year Plans #
| Plan Period | Core Policy Focus | Key Strategies & Schemes Introduced |
|---|---|---|
| 1st & 2nd Plans (1951–1961) | Community Development & Basic Infrastructure | Special Multipurpose Tribal Blocks (SMPTB) with intensive funding; establishment of Ashram schools. |
| 3rd & 4th Plans (1961–1974) | Area-Based Development | Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs) targeting areas with 66%+ STs; setting up Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs). |
| 5th Plan onwards (1974–1979) | Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) Strategy | Earmarking funds strictly proportional to ST population (8.6%); ITDP, MADA, Clusters, and PVTG micro-projects. |
| 8th & 9th Plans (1992–2002) | Decentralization & Empowerment | Enactment of PESA (1996); focus on Women’s Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and TRIFED market linkages. |
| 10th to 12th Plans (2002–2017) | Rights-Based Framework | Forest Rights Act (FRA 2006); expansion of Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS). |
| Contemporary Era (NITI Aayog) | Saturation & Targetted Welfare | Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana; PM-JANMAN Mission (₹24,000 Cr comprehensive infrastructure for 75 PVTGs). |
3. Critical Evaluation & Bottlenecks of Tribal Development #
Despite massive financial outlays, tribal development in India has faced severe structural critiques (as highlighted by the Shilu Ao Committee, Bhuria Committee, and Xaxa Committee Report, 2014):
- Bureaucratic Paternalism: Top-down implementation ignoring local tribal priorities and customary institutions.
- Elite Capture & Inter-Tribal Stratification: Benefits monopolized by advanced, educated sections (e.g., Meenas in Rajasthan, Christian Nagas/Mizos) while primitive food-gatherers (Birhors, Chenchus) remain neglected.
- Diversion of TSP Funds: States routinely divert earmarked TSP funds to general infrastructure (bridges, highways, urban airports).
- Failure of Implementation of PESA and FRA: Bureaucratic resistance by State Forest Departments to cede CFR authority to Gram Sabhas.
8.4 Constitutional Safeguards for Scheduled Tribes (5th and 6th Schedules) #
Constitutional Safeguards Matrix #
| Category | Constitutional Articles | Key Safeguard & Legal Mandate |
|---|---|---|
| Protective | • Art. 15(4) & 16(4) • Art. 19(5) • Art. 23 |
• Special affirmative provisions & public job reservations (7.5%) • Restricts entry & land purchase by outsiders in tribal areas • Total prohibition of forced bonded labor (Begar) |
| Administrative | • Fifth Schedule (Art. 244(1)) • Sixth Schedule (Art. 244(2)) • Art. 275(1) |
• Administration of Scheduled Areas in 10 mainland states • Autonomous District Councils in 4 North-Eastern states (AMTM) • Mandatory Union Grants-in-Aid for tribal welfare |
| Political | • Art. 330 & 332 • Art. 243D & 243T |
• Reserved seats in Lok Sabha & State Assemblies proportional to pop. • Mandatory reservation of seats & chairpersons in PRIs/ULBs |
| Institutional | • Art. 338A • Art. 339 |
• National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) • Appointment of Commission to report on the administration of STs |
Detailed Comparison: Fifth Schedule vs. Sixth Schedule #
| Comparison Dimension | Fifth Schedule (Article 244(1)) | Sixth Schedule (Article 244(2)) |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Geographical Scope | 10 States in Mainland India: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh. | 4 North-Eastern States (AMTM): Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram. |
| 2. Primary Governing Body | Tribes Advisory Council (TAC): Advisory body consisting of up to 20 members (3/4th ST MLAs). | Autonomous District Councils (ADCs): Representative bodies with up to 30 members possessing mini-legislative powers. |
| 3. Legislative Powers | TAC has no direct lawmaking power; Governor can direct whether an Act of Parliament applies to Scheduled Areas. | ADCs have direct powers to make laws on land, forests, canal water, shifting cultivation, village councils, inheritance, and marriage. |
| 4. Judicial Powers | General state judicial hierarchy operates; Governor makes minor trial regulations. | ADCs establish Village and District Council Courts to try suits between tribals under customary laws. |
| 5. Taxation Powers | No independent taxation power. | ADCs have powers to levy taxes on lands, buildings, professions, tolls, and vehicles. |
Statutory Extensions: PESA Act, 1996 #
- Background: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment (Panchayati Raj) did not automatically apply to 5th Schedule areas. The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 was passed based on the Bhuria Committee recommendations.
- Core Powers Vested in the Gram Sabha:
- Mandatory consultation before land acquisition or resettlement of displaced tribals.
- Ownership of Minor Forest Produce (MFP).
- Power to prevent land alienation and restore unlawfully alienated tribal land.
- Control over local moneylending and enforcement of prohibition on intoxicants.
- Mandatory recommendation before granting prospecting licenses or mining leases for minor minerals.
8.5 Socio-Economic Changes in the Tribal Milieu #
1. Impact of Urbanization and Industrialization #
- The “Resource Curse” & Enclave Development: Major public and private industrial plants (Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Jamshedpur Tata Steel, Chittaranjan) were established in the mineral-rich tribal heartland of Jharkhand, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh.
- Anthropological Consequences (L.P. Vidyarthi’s Study of Hatia/Ranchi Industrial Complex):
- Uprooting of Villages: Entire tribal settlements bulldozed, turning self-sufficient agricultural tribals into marginalized slum-dwellers (de-tribalization).
- Job Disparity: Tribals lacked technical education, securing only precarious, unskilled casual labor, while lucrative technical and managerial jobs went to non-tribal immigrants (Dikus).
- Social Pathologies: Growth of alcoholism, prostitution, family disintegration, and erosion of youth dormitories (Dhumkuria, Ghotul).
2. Historical Transformations Across Epochs #
| Historical Epoch | Dominant Socio-Economic Process | Structural Consequence on Tribal Society |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Pre-Colonial Period | Relative geographic isolation; symbiotic trade with neighboring peasants; Rajputization & state formation. | Autonomous culture preserved; non-competitive integration via Hindu Mode of Tribal Absorption (N.K. Bose). |
| 2. Colonial Period | Opening of tribal areas via railways/roads; introduction of Zamindari land tenure; British Forest Acts; missionary work. | Massive land alienation, bonded labor, debt traps; destruction of customary rights leading to armed tribal uprisings. |
| 3. Post-Independence Period | Planned developmental state; heavy industrialization/mining; democratic electoral politics; affirmative action. | Emergence of tribal middle class; widespread development displacement; ethnic identity assertion and statehood movements. |
3. Impact of Modern Democratic Institutions on Traditional Political Systems #
- Traditional Tribal Political Organization: Characterized by egalitarian, consensus-based governance headed by hereditary village headmen (Manjhi / Munda / Pradhan) and regional councils (Parha Panchayat / Pargana).
- Collision with Statutory Panchayats (PRIs):
- Dual Power Centers: Conflict between the traditional hereditary Manjhi (who enforces customary social norms) and the elected statutory Gram Pradhan / Sarpanch (who controls state development funds).
- Factionalism: Introduction of party-based electoral politics and money power has fractured traditional village community solidarity.
8.6 Tribal Movements in India: Nature, Distribution, and Case Studies #
Typology of Indian Tribal Movements (L.K. Mahapatra & K.S. Singh) #
| Movement Category | Defining Characteristics | Historic & Contemporary Examples |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Reactionary / Retaliatory | Armed uprisings against foreign British rule, oppressive moneylenders (Mahajans), and land-grabbers. | • Santhal Hul (1855–56) • Kol Insurrection (1831–32) • Rampa Rebellion (1922–24) |
| 2. Messianic / Millenarian | Led by charismatic spiritual leaders promising deliverance and a golden age free of oppressors. | • Birsa Munda’s Ulgulan (1899–1900) • Tana Bhagat Movement (1914) • Govind Giri’s Bhagat Movement |
| 3. Political & Regional Statehood | Constitutional and democratic mass mobilizations demanding separate states or territorial autonomy. | • Jharkhand Movement • Bodoland Movement (Assam) • Naga National Movement |
| 4. Forest & Anti-Displacement | Grassroots resistance against dams, mining projects, and environmental degradation. | • Narmada Bachao Andolan • Niyamgiri Dongria Kondh struggle against Vedanta (Odisha) |
1. The Santhal Movement / Santhal Hul (1855–1856) #
A. Background & Causes: #
- In 1832, the British demarcated the Damin-i-Koh region (Rajmahal Hills, Jharkhand/Bengal) and encouraged Santhals to clear dense forests for settled agriculture.
- Exploitation by Mahajans and Zamindars: Money lenders charged exorbitant interest (50% to 500%), cheated through false weights (Kenr / Bechar weights), and seized Santhal agricultural land and cattle.
- Corrupt Colonial Administration: Police and revenue officials actively aided the non-tribal Dikus.
B. Course of the Rebellion: #
- On June 30, 1855, over 10,000 Santhals gathered at Bhagnadihi under the charismatic leadership of four brothers: Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu.
- Sidhu and Kanhu claimed divine revelation from the supreme deity (Thakur Jiu), declaring an end to British and Mahajan rule and proclaiming Santhal self-governance.
- The rebellion mobilized thousands armed with bows, arrows, and battle-axes, capturing police stations and halting postal and railway communication between Bhagalpur and Bengal.
- Brutal Suppression: The British mobilized the military, imposing martial law; over 15,000 Santhals, including Sidhu and Kanhu, were killed.
C. Significance & Outcomes: #
- Recognized the distinctive identity of Santhals; the British carved out the Santhal Parganas District (1855).
- Enacted the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act (SPTA), 1876, which strictly banned the transfer or sale of tribal lands to non-tribals.
2. The Jharkhand Movement #
The Jharkhand Movement represents the longest and most significant regional sub-nationalist political movement in mainland tribal India, culminating in the creation of the separate state of Jharkhand on November 15, 2000 (birth anniversary of Birsa Munda).
A. Roots of Jharkhand Regionalism: #
- Economic Exploitation (“Internal Colonialism”): Chota Nagpur produced over 40% of India’s minerals and revenue, but tribal areas received less than 5% of developmental expenditure, with local tribals facing displacement without employment.
- Cultural Alienation: Domination of North Indian administrative elites (Dikus) and non-recognition of tribal languages (Santali, Mundari, Ho, Kurukh).
- Historical Lineage: Deep historical memory of the Chota Nagpur tribal chiefdoms and anti-British uprisings (Kol Insurrection 1831, Santhal Hul 1855, Birsa Ulgulan 1899).
B. Chronological Evolution of the Jharkhand Movement: #
| Phase & Period | Leadership & Organizations | Key Demands & Milestones |
|---|---|---|
| Phase 1: Educational & Reformist (1912–1938) | • J. Bartholmen (Chotanagpur Improvement Society, 1912) • Juel Lakra (Chotanagpur Unnati Samaj, 1915) |
Submitted memorandum to the Simon Commission (1928) demanding a separate administrative unit for Chota Nagpur tribals. |
| Phase 2: Electoral Mobilization (1938–1963) | • Jaipal Singh Munda (Adivasi Mahasabha, 1938) • Jharkhand Party (Founded 1949) |
Emerged as the main opposition party in Bihar Assembly (1952); presented the case for a Jharkhand State to the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC, 1955). |
| Phase 3: Radical & Agrarian Realignment (1970s–1980s) | • Shibu Soren, A.K. Roy, Binod Bihari Mahato • Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM, Founded 1973) |
Broadened the struggle by forging an alliance between Adivasis (tribals) and Sadanis (indigenous non-tribal peasantry) against non-tribal exploiters. |
| Phase 4: Negotiations & Statehood (1986–2000) | • All Jharkhand Students Union (AJSU, 1986) • Jharkhand Coordination Committee (JCC) |
Establishment of Jharkhand Area Autonomous Council (JAAC, 1995); enactment of the Bihar Reorganisation Act, 2000 creating the State of Jharkhand on Nov 15, 2000. |
Model Questions for WBCS Mains Practice #
10-Mark Short Notes #
- Nehru’s Tribal Panchsheel and its contemporary relevance.
- Criteria for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) and PM-JANMAN.
- Key differences between the 5th and 6th Schedules of the Constitution.
- Causes and outcomes of the Santhal Hul (1855).
- Significance of the PESA Act (1996) for tribal self-governance.
20-Mark Long Questions #
- Give a comprehensive account of the geographical, linguistic, and economic classifications of Indian tribes with suitable examples.
- Critically analyze the problem of Land Alienation and Forest Deprivation among Scheduled Tribes in India. How far has the Forest Rights Act (FRA, 2006) addressed historical injustices?
- Evaluate the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) strategy introduced in the Fifth Five Year Plan. Discuss the major administrative bottlenecks and policy critiques of tribal development in India.
- Trace the origin, phases of development, and socio-political factors leading to the Jharkhand Movement. How did it transition from an ethnic tribal movement to a regional sub-nationalist struggle?